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from Earth Mysteries Web SiteScience Before There Were Scientists
7 million BC to 600 BC
Today, when we think of science or scientists, many of us think of Einstein, or chemistry, or space. Rarely do we consider the contributions of “early” science. Even those of us who have studied science think of “true” science starting with the Greeks. Any science that was done before the Greeks is usually thought of as technological advances based on the needs of those people, not as true science. A good example of this would be the beginning of agriculture. While it is true that you need an understanding of plants and animals, many of us view agriculture as the need to grow your own food so you can stop moving from place to place.
So, what do we know of these beginning scientists? Sadly, we are just starting to know our ancestors better. Most of our knowledge is derived from finding fossilized remains of their skeletons or artifacts that have been preserved. One of the oldest fossils of an organism related to humans came to be known as “Lucy”. Lucy is classified as Australopithecus, or “southern ape”. She lived about 3.9 million years ago and only grew to 3’6”. According to research and archaeological findings, it is believed that Lucy did not use any tools. It is the tools of various organisms allows scientists to determine much of past humans life styles. Without tools, scientists can only guess a majority of what Lucy’s life was like by using her skeletal remains. Donald Johanson and Tom Gray found Lucy’s remains in Africa in 1974. Lucy is more closely related to chimpanzees than humans. They could walk, but took to the trees to avoid predators. Lucy and her relatives would form an early branch of the family tree that would become the humans we have today. However, here is where scientists believe a branch formed into two paths. One branch became Paranthorpus boisei, the other Homo habilis. Boisei were more gorilla like and lived from 2.5 million to 1 million years ago. They were herbivores and very gentle. Mary Leakey discovered the first remains of boisei when she found a skull in 1959. They did use tools such as twigs to dig tubers or roots out of the ground to eat. The other branch became Homo habilis or “handy man”, which existed the same time as the boisei, 2.2-1.6 million years ago. Mary Leakey also discovered the first remains of Homo habilis in 1972. While considered to be the earliest species of humans due to their large brain size, this titling is still highly controversial. Their first tools were most likely made of wood and have decayed and disappeared over time. Thus, our first record of early man’s technology must begin with the discovery of stone tools. It is widely believed that at this time, man was a scavenger of meat and a gatherer of berries. Homo habilis did not hunt for his meat. It is also believed that Homo habilis existed only in Africa. Homo erectus, or upright man, and Homo ergaster or workman, would later replace Homo habilis through evolution. These two groups lived side by side from 1.9 million to 600,000 years ago. Homo erectus was the more successful species and lived on until 300,000 years ago. Their brains were 50% larger than Homo habilis and they had white sclera (the area around the iris), which allowed them to stare and show direction without movement. Probably the greatest contribution made by Homo erectus would be the ability to control fire. However, the formation of bone tools was also very important. This allowed for man to make tools that were too fine to be made from stone, such as, needles or fish hooks. Homo erectus was also known to be the first man to hunt his food. Scientists also categorize these people as “Hunter-Gatherers”. These hunter-gatherers would need to have a fairly extensive knowledge of plants and animals so they would know which were safe to eat. They would also use various plants and berries for poisons, dyes, and medicines. A type of Homo erectus, known as Neanderthals, was probably the first to use language. This discovery wasn’t made until 1983 when a hyoid bone as found in the skeleton of a Neanderthal. It is this bone that allows for speech and language. During their life span, the Neanderthals were very territorial and probably only ranged in an area they could hunt within a few days. This hindered them in not allowing for them to exchange ideas with other clans. The Neanderthals were also believed to be the first human species to adapt to a cold environment. Their bones were thick and shorter which allowed them to deal with more muscular stress and retain body heat. Their noses were flat to their faces, which allowed them to retain heat and protect internal organs. To survive the cold and stress, the Neanderthals would have to consume about 7000 calories, or 3 times what we eat. A majority of their diet consisted of meat. Special enzymes in their stomachs allowed them to digest raw meat. Scientists have determined this by grinding up their bones and studying fossilized feces. When a Neanderthal made a kill, none of the animal was wasted. Meat became food and bones became tools. Sinew (tendons and ligaments) was used to form rope. Homo erectus would expand the boundaries of man to reach to what is now Europe and Asia. Finally, man would evolve again into Homo sapiens or wise man. The first examples of this were known as Cro-Magnon man. These would be the first people to begin making metal tools. Although the first wooden tools were made prior to this, we know for sure they were used during the time of Homo sapiens due to cave paintings of bows and arrows, spears, and slings being used. Around 45,000 years ago, Homo sapiens reached Australia and quite possibly the Americas.
At this point, it is important to add that the travels of man are based on the human fossils that are found in various parts of the world. Often, when a new fossil is found, the areas that man was believed to have traveled will then change.
It makes sense that the science of the “caveman” would also be similar to the beginning of our scientific inquiry, observation. The caveman saw something, ate something, or tried something and experienced the results. There wasn’t any attempt to explain what had happened. Instead, they watched their “friend” eat a berry and watched him get sick. They then knew not to eat that type of berry. When they got to point where cave paintings were made, we get the beginnings of the recording of data. It is largely through these paintings that we know about the daily life of the cave dwellers. Again, this represents the beginning of science.
There is also evidence of math and astronomy during early man. Notches on bones have been found that are grouped as to indicate counting. Many of these bones seem to be indicating a lunar cycle. For example, a baboon’s fibula was found with a series of notches carved into it. This bone was found in Swaziland, in southern Africa. The possibility of observatories for astronomy exists in the early structures such as Stonehenge, but much of this is still up to scrutiny.
1. List the believed progression of tools.
2. Why would being able to control fire be considered as an advantage?
3. How many notches do you think were on the lunar cycle bones? Explain your
answer.
Most of us are familiar with the debate of the “chicken or the egg”. Simply put, we often wonder which came first. A similar debate has occurred between cities or agriculture. We know that agriculture began around 10,000 years ago, as did the formation of cities. However, the debate arises on which caused the other. Some believe that the formation of cities caused a need for a great amount of food to be grown close to where the cities were located. This would allow for people to stop having to hunt and search for their food. The other side of this argument is that once people learned to grow their own food, they stopped moving from place to place and formed cities. Today, the popular belief is that after cites formed, people started agriculture. A strong supporting element for this is the fact that modern day hunter-gathers know about agriculture, but they just feel it is too much work. Another supporting factor is now the belief that many of these cities were more functional as places of trade. Cities and towns arose in places were people would meet to exchange goods or ideas. This trade would also be important in the formation of science.
It is also important to remember that agriculture does not deal strictly with the growing of plants. The domestication of animals is also vital to an understanding of agriculture. It is believed that dogs were one of the first animals to be domesticated. This took place in Mesopotamia around 10,000 BC. Within the next 2000 years, man also domesticated chickens, cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs.
1. What are two supporting reasons why we believe that cities arose causing the need for agriculture?
2. Why would trade be an important factor in the development of science?
3. Above were listed some animals that had been domesticated. Why do you think that those animals were the first to be domesticated?
Besides the agricultural revolution, many other discoveries, inventions, and technologies would shape the scientific landscape. The most important of these was probably the invention of writing. The earliest forms of writing we know of was created by the Sumerian people of Mesopotamia around 5000 BC. This same group of people would also begin the use of a written form for numbers around 3000 BC. The Egyptians would create their own form of writing in 3000 BC with the invention of hieroglyphic writing. Prior to these dates, information had been passed on through the word of mouth, pictures or demonstrations. Often, much of this information would be lost or misinterpreted. However, with the invention of writing, a new method of recording data became available. The development of writing would also be of great importance in trade, as it would aid in accounting practices. Also around the year of 5000 BC, the people of Mesopotamia would build large sailing ships and travel to foreign lands. This served to increase the trade and exchanging of ideas.
With the invention of writing, the next step was a creation of a system or standard for measurements. Prior to writing, the most common measurement was time. The distance from city to city was measured in the number of days to complete the journey. If the journey were especially long, it would be measured in moons. An acre was the amount of land that one man with one ox could plow in a day. Obviously, a strong man with a strong ox would have an advantage and more land than weaker versions of man and ox. Body parts followed time as a standard for measurement. We still use the “foot” as a measurement today. The word “inch” is actually a Latin version of thumb, and a yard was the distance from your outstretched arm to the tip of your nose. The problem with this system is obvious: bodies differ in size. Would you rather have a foot of red licorice using your foot or Shaquille O’Neal’s? So, the next step was to use the foot or thumb or weight of royalty as your standard. The earliest preserved form of measurement was the foot of a statue that was used as a standard for length. This statue was of Gudea who happened to be the ruler of the city of Lagash in 2100 BC.
This, in turn, led to a system for measurements that everyone could use. Since Mesopotamia was the center for much of the trade, it was this city that set the standards for weight, length and capacity or volume. Scientists are still unsure what these actual standards were. Finally, the creation of a representation for various amounts was needed. One of the first examples of this was a clay token that was used to represent a certain amount of grain. Grain was of great value for food and the growing of crops and was frequently traded. So, let’s imagine that you wanted to purchase some silk to make a shirt. You could trade the grain you grew for that silk. Would you rather bring a token that represented 10 bags of grain, or actually bring 10 bags of grain? It is safe to assume that most of us would rather carry the token.
1. Why would the invention of writing be so important to science?
Earlier, we had discussed the use of wood tools and later stone and bone tools. These would be followed by the use of metal tools. However, you can’t go out and dig up some iron in the form of a fork or spoon. This ore, the raw form of metals, would have to be melted down and shaped into the form needed. One of the easiest metals to melt and shape is copper. Copper is also relatively widespread through out the world, so it is of little surprise that the first metal to be used was copper around 5000 BC. This would be followed by silver and gold around 4000 BC and then iron in 3000 BC. Egyptians first did the shaping of metals. By understanding the Egyptians knowledge of metals, it would also be of little surprise to find that the Egyptians were also the first to make metal mirrors in 3000 BC. Metal mirrors would remain the standard until the 1800’s.
2900 BC The Great Pyramid of Giza is almost a perfect square and is set exactly
along North-South and East-West lines.
1000 BC The first known set of false teeth is used for cosmetic reasons.
776 BC The Greeks hold the first Olympiad.
Earlier, we have read about the agricultural revolution. One of the results of this revolution was the ability of generations of people to stay in one place for a long time. A result of staying on one place was improved astronomy. People began making observatories to watch the stars and give them a particular reference point. This allowed the accuracy of astronomy to improve greatly. By watching the stars and noticing their patterns, people knew when the seasons were about to change. This, in turn, allowed them to know when to plant crops, when to harvest those crops, or when an eclipse might occur.
Due to the fact that there were no telescopes, all observation was done with the naked eye. Obviously, this limits the objects that you are able to see. Astronomy of this time was largely limited to the stars, the Sun and the Moon. These objects would be the first recorders of time. Days, months, seasons and years could all be determined by the objects in the day and night skies.
For questions 1-3, do not use a clock, or a calendar to arrive at your answer.
3. How long is a year?
One of the first relics found that had anything to do with astronomy was a bone with notches on it. This bone was probably used as a lunar calendar. This bone is believed to be from 20,000 BC. A similar type of bone with notches was found in Zaire that is believed to be from 6500 BC. Around 2800 BC, the first version of Stonehenge was built. Stonehenge is an ancient observatory in England. The first version consisted of 3 large “stones” surrounded by 56 pits. It is believed that observers sat in various pits throughout the year and various stars would line up with the stones, depending on the time of year.
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from Earth Mysteries Web Site
Stonehenge would then be modified again with 80 stones being added to the area. These additions were believed to be completed around 2200 BC. Finally, around 1400 BC, Stonehenge would take the form it now holds.
Picture from Earth Mysteries Web Site
Picture from Earth Mysteries Web Site
Stonehenge was not the only ancient observatory. In 2600 BC, the Chinese began the use of sundials for telling time. This began as a large pole placed in the center of a town square. The Chinese were also the first to suggest using the equator and the poles as the basis for stellar observation. The rest of the world would not use this system until the time of Tycho Brahe in the 1600’s. The Egyptians also played their part with the construction of the Needle of Cleopatra in 1450 BC. This tall structure was used to predict the time, seasons and solstices. This obelisk stands 85 ft. tall. The Egyptians also built their pyramids along celestial borders. Their edges follow directly along compass point directions and many contain “observatory shafts” where they could watch the path of the stars such as Sirius or Thuban.
Now that man had created structures to help them watch the stars, they were able to use this knowledge in various ways. The most important application of this knowledge was the creation of a calendar. We often think of a calendar as just a way to keep track of long periods of time, but calendars originated as a way to use the stars to tell you when the seasons would change, when the Nile river would flood, or simply what stars you could see in the heavens at a particular time. The first known calendar to use 365 days was created by the Egyptians some time around 4241 BC. This calendar would begin when the Nile River flooded which coincided with the time that the star Sirius rose in line with the Sun. In fact, the Egyptians would see Orion rise and then watch for Sirius, his dog star. When this happened, they would sound the trumpets to let the people know the Nile was about to flood. Note: at the time the Egyptians did this, the date was probably around July 20th. In the 6000 years that have passed, the date is now July 2nd and no longer coincides with the flooding of the Nile. The Egyptians would have 5 days of festival following the flood. This would then be followed by 12 months (moons) of 30 days. However, an actual year is 365 days, 5 hours and 48 minutes or 365 and ¼ days. This discrepancy would cause the Egyptian calendar to be off a little every year. The Greeks would later correct this problem by adding a day every 4 years. In 2600 BC, the Sumerians would create their own calendar of 360 days, again using 12 months of 30 days. To correct for the extra time, they would add an extra month every 8 years.
An extension of the calendar was the signs of the Zodiac. Astrologers in Mesopotamia established this in 1600 BC. Your Zodiac sign is based on the constellation that the Sun rises through on the day that you are born. Astrologers would then use an interpretation of your sign to tell about you and the life you would lead. It is important to note that Astrology is not a true science and what is often considered to be pseudo-science or false science. An experiment done later in this unit will demonstrate this point.
Finally, other objects or occurrences were also documented, but we not clearly explained or understood. The Chinese first recorded the sighting of a comet in 2296 BC. They would also be the first to record a solar eclipse in 763 BC and in 720 BC; they began to record solar eclipses throughout the known world.
Imagine that you are a member of the Homo habilis species and you are looking for food in a nearby wooded area. You find some red berries growing on a small plant. What kind of questions might run through your head?
In order to answer these questions, you would probably need an extensive knowledge of the plants in your area. Sadly, there is only one-way for Homo habilis to gain this knowledge…eat the plant. If you were to get sick, or even die, the others in your group would know not to eat that plant. However, most of them probably all ate the plant at the same time. Some of the same questions existed for animals that the “cavemen” would encounter. Is this animal good to eat? Is this animal bad to eat? Is this animal poisonous? You can also add, Will this animal eat me? Again, there is only one way to gain this knowledge…to experience it firsthand. Understanding how plants and animals reacted with you was the first example of a classification system.
Out of all the living organisms you know, plant or animal, what living organism is the most important to study?
If you said “humans”, you would be in good company. Scientific history is full of experiments, surgeries, and medicines all used on the human body; and all to gain a better knowledge of how we work. The earliest example we have of this is Egyptian carvings from 2500 BC showing surgical procedures in progress. It is unsure whether these surgeries were for treatment or experiments. About 1000 years later, a papyrus (paper) was written describing over 700 medications and their effects on the human body. Some of these medications could be considered “pleasure drugs”. These drugs were often used as a way to bring them “closer to their gods”. In fact, much of their medicine and treatment of various illnesses still relied on astrology, demons and the gods.
Geology is the study of the Earth. Often, geology is thought of as just the study of rocks and minerals. While this is a major part of geology, there is much more to it. Geology also includes the study of fossils, or paleontology. Trying to understand the stories behind fossils leads to anthropology and archeology, or the human side of the story.
Earlier, it was mentioned that wooden tools had decayed over time. So, the first accurate record of man is derived from stone tools. It is believed that these stone tools originated around 2,400,000 BC. These tools could be used for cutting and for weapons. While the invention of stone tools is monumental, about 1.5 million years later man would make another fantastic achievement.
Exploring the caves where cavemen had existed, scientists have found ancient hearths where fires were kept. The ability to control fire would lead to many other discoveries. Fire could be used to cook food, keep warm, provide light, as a defense or weapon, and though not done by the caveman, used to melt metals. Imagine a caveman sitting by his warm fire cooking his meat for the night. The meat gets a little too close to the fire and the fat starts to burn. Realizing that the fat continues to burn, the caveman puts the fat in a stone bowl and takes it into his cave. He now has a lamp for the evening. This is just an explanatory story, but scientists have found bowls believed to be from 79,000 BC that seemed to be fat lamps.
Now that cavemen had a way to stay up all night, it was time to start dancing. Again, musical instruments at this time would have been made of wood, or in the case of drums, animal skin, and they would have decayed. However, cave paintings that date from around 25,000 BC depict dancing and various musical instruments.
One other item was also used for a tool and that was bone. Bone was used for needles and fishing hooks. Bone was also very easy to carve. Around 20,000 BC, a map was carved into bone. After studying the area, scientists discovered that it was a map of the surrounding area. The first map of a city was also found during this time period, around 2300 BC. A map of Lagash, a city in Mesopotamia was found in the lap of a statue.
Finally, there was one other major event that happened during this time that deals with geology. Many of you are familiar with the story of Atlantis. This fabled city sank into the ocean following a volcanic eruption. There is some scientific background to support the story. Around 1628 BC, the volcanic island known as Santorini erupted. The eruption of Santorini was catastrophic as it blocked out the Sun, caused harsh winters for 3 years, and is credited for the destruction of the Minoan Empire and the city of Atlantis. Santorini is still active today and last erupted in 1950. It is highly likely that authors used the eruption of Santorini to create the story of Atlantis.
How do scientists know all the dates that have been mentioned above? First, a majority of the dates are estimates, usually within 100 to 1000 years. However, scientists can be slightly more accurate through the use of stratification, carbon dating, or tree ring analysis. These techniques will be explored later.